The Shang dynasty was centered on modern Henan. It reached its peak during the reign of Wu Ding, and its influence reached as far as the Yangtze River basin. The Shang capital was moved several times. Pan Geng moved the capital to Yin (modern Xiaotun, Anyang, Henan). There were many vassal states surrounding the Shang territory, including the Guifang in the northwest, and the Qingfang in the west.

The Zhou people were active in the upper reaches of the Yellow River (modern Shaanxi and Gansu area) before they conquered the Shang dynasty. After King Wu of Zhou deposed the last king of the Shang, he founded the Zhou dynasty. The capital was established at Hao (modern Xi’an, Shaanxi), and was later moved to Luoyi.

The Spring and Autumn period witnessed the decline of the Zhou imperial house, and the rise of vassal lords who became more autocratic. The major vassal states included Lu, Qi, Jin, Qin, Chu, Song, Wei, Chen, Cai, Cao, Zheng, Yan, Wu, and Yue.

Seven major states—Qin, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, and Wei—emerged in the Warring States period. Together their territory extended from the Great Wall in the north to the Yangtze River basin region in the south.

The Qin state defeated the six rival states in 221 b.c.e., and established the first unified empire in Chinese history.

In 202 b.c.e, Liu Bang, King of Han, defeated the King of Chu, Xiang Yu. After ascending the throne, he founded the Han dynasty. In 60 b.c.e. (the second year of the Shenjue era of Emperor Xuan), the Han court established the Western Region Protectorate, an administrative office in charge of various tribes and kingdoms in the Western Regions. It was located south of the Tianshan Mountains and east of the Pamirs. The descendants of the Eastern nomadic Hu people, the Wuhuan, and the Xianbei lived on the Eastern Mongolian Plateau while the Xiongnu lived in the northern and the southern regions of the Gobi Desert. Various Qiang tribal peoples lived on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Southwestern Yunnan was home to the Ailao tribe.

Liu Xiu, Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han, ascended the throne in 25 c.e. (the first year of the Jianwu era). He first eliminated Wang Mang’s separatist regime, and reunified the entire realm. In 123 (the second year of the Yanguang erareign) of the Eastern Han, the Western Region Protectorate was changed to the Administrative Office of the Western Regions. The Xianbei took advantage of the internal divisions of the Xiongnu in the north and expanded their territory. They attacked the Wusun to the west, and fell back in retreat from the Fuyu to the east. They occupied all of the former territory of the Xiongnu. At that time, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was still occupied by the Qiang. In the northeast, both banks of the upper reaches of the Yalu River were part of Goguryeo territory.

Cao Pi was installed as Emperor Wen of Wei in 220. Liu Bei founded the state of Shu Han in 221 and became its first ruler, and in 222 Sun Quan established the state of Wu. These three states—Wei, Shu, and Wu—formed a “tripartite configuration.” The Wei state continued the Administrative Office of the Western Regions to govern the various peoples and kingdoms in the Western Regions, except for the Wusun. Aside from Wei (sometimes called Cao Wei) there were other territories in the northeast such as the Goguryeo, Yilou, and Buyeo. The Wei state bordered the territory of the Qianghu, and the areas north and south of the Gobi Desert were occupied by the Xianbei. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was occupied by various branches of the Qiang.

The Western Jin defeated Wu in 280, ending the “tripartite configuration.” In the Western Regions and the territory beyond the Jin boundry, the Western Jin continued the Administrative Office of the Western Regions; it governed the various peoples and kingdoms of the Western Regions, except for the Wusun. Aside from the Western Jin territory in the northeast there were the territories of Goguryeo, Yilou, Buyeo, and others. The territory of the Qianghu bordered the north. The areas north and south of the Gobi Desert were occupied by the Xianbei. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was inhabited by various branches of the Qiang.

From the late Western Jin to the beginning of the Liu-Song dynasty, sixteen kingdoms were established by various semi-nomadic groups in the Central Plain and Sichuan regions. In 317, Sima Rui ascended to the position of Prince of Jin in Jiankang (modern Nanjing). Historically the new state was called the Eastern Jin because Jiankang was located east of Luoyang. The territory of the Eastern Jin was limited to the area south of the Hui River, the lower reaches of the Han River, and the Sichuan basin to the south of the Yangtze River. Northeast of the Former Qin territory was Goguryeo, Yilou, and other states. The territory beyond the Former Qin was occupied by tribal peoples such as the Gaoju, and the Xiongnu. The Wusun state was located in the northwest of the Administrative Office of the Defender of Dependent States in the Western Regions (?). The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was inhabited by Tuyuhun and various branches of the Qiang, such as the Baoji, the Sunbo, and the Nüguo.

Liu Yu installed himself as emperor and established the Song (known as the Liu-Song) in 420, the first regime of the Southern Dynasties. Tuoba Tao unified the north and founded the Northern Wei, one of the Northern Dynasties. The Southern and the Northern dynasties found themselves in a North-South confrontation. At that time, the northeastern portion of the Wei territory was inhabited by the Qidan, Shiwei, and Wuji. North of the Gobi Desert were the territories of the Rouran, Gaoju, and the Qigu. The Wusun, Yueban, and the Yutian occupied the Western Regions. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was occupied by various peoples such as the Tuyuhun, Dangxiang, Nüguo, and Xiangxiong.

In 557, Chen Baxian deposed Xiao Fangzhi (Emperor Jing of the Liang dynasty) and established the Chen dynasty. Seven years earlier, Gao Yang of the Eastern Wei deposed the emperor and established the Qi dynasty. The Yuwen clan deposed the Western Wei emperor and installed themselves as emperors of a new dynasty which they called the Zhou. At that time, the Tujue (a Turkic khanate) had already conquered the kingdoms in the Western Regions, as well as other states beyond the Great Wall. They controlled a vast expanse of territory—5,000 to 6,000 li from north to south, and more than 10,000 li east to west. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was inhabited by various peoples such as the Tuyuhun, Baoji, Nüguo, and the Xiangxiong.

Yang Jian usurped power from Emperor Jing of the Northern Zhou, and established the Sui dynasty in 581. In 589, the Sui abolished the Chen dynasty, marking the end of the division of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. After 583, the Tujue khanate was divided into the Eastern Tujue and the Western Tujue, which were located to the north and northwest of the Sui. Beyond the Sui territory, the Goguryeo dynasty was situated in Liaodong, and the Mohe tribes occupied an area from northeastern Goguryeo to the ocean. West of the Mohe area was the territory of the Shiwei tribes. The areas from south of the Shiwei to the frontier of the Sui were the territories of the Qidan, Xì, and Xī tribes. The territories of the Kunming, Pubu, and others were located southwest of the Sui realm. On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau were several tribes. The Nüguo were situated in the west of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, while the Baoji, Sunbo, and others were situated in the middle. The Fuguo and other tribes lived in the east.

Li Yuan (Emperor Gaozu) founded the Tang dynasty in 618 and was its first emperor. He gradually eliminated the power of the separatist lords who had existed since the Sui dynasty, and eventually the realm was unified in 628 (the second year of the Zhenguan era of Emperor Taizong). In 668 (the first year of the Zongzhang era of Emperor Gaozong), the Tang defeated the Goguryeo dynasty. Afterwards the Tang territory expanded greatly. The Tubo kingdom rose at the beginning of the seventh century and occupied the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. It was in constant contention with the Tang for supremacy. Southwest of the Tang were the territories of the Puzi, Jinchi, and other tribes. Northeast of the Songhua River and the Heilongjiang valley were the territories of the Mohe, Shiwei, and other tribes.

The Tang dynasty ended in 907 and was succeeded by the Five Dynasties: Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou. These dynasties ruled the Yellow River basin area. The territories from south of the Huai River to the Guangdong area were occupied by the Former Shu, Later Shu, Wu, Southern Tang, Wuyue, Min, Nanping, Chu, and Southern Han. The Northern Han occupied the Taiyuan area. These were known as the "Ten Kingdoms."

Zhao Kuangyin founded the Song dynasty and proclaimed himself emperor in 960 after he defeated the Later Zhou; however, it was not until 982 that he unified the realm. The Song dynasty ended when the Jin forces captured the capital and kidnapped Emperors Huizong and Qinzong in 1127. Historically this period is known as the Northern Song. From the late tenth century to the early twelfth century, the Liao dynasty and the Northern Song were in near continuous confrontation. In addition to these three regimes (the Liao, Song, and Xi Xia), there was the Dali kingdom situated in Yunnan, and the Tubo and the Huangtou Huihe (Yellow Headed Uyghurs) tribes which occupied the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Xizhou Huihu and Qarakhanid kingdoms controlled the Western Regions, while the Wolanggai and Xiajiasi tribes occupied the territory north of the Liao boundaries.

In 1127, after the Jin (Jurchen) armies invaded the Song territory and withdrew to the north, Zhao Gou, Prince of Kang, acceded as emperor in Nanjing; this marked the beginning of the Southern Song. From early twelfth century to early thirteenth century, the Jin dynasty and the Southern Song dynasty were in a constant state of contention. The territories of the Xi Xia, Dali, and Tubo tribes were similar to that of the Northern Song. After the Jin army defeated the Liao forces, Yelü Dashi, a member of the Liao imperial family, led his forces westward. He continued to use Liao as the name of his new regime, known historically as the Western Liao. At that time, the Mongolian Plateau was inhabited by the Keraits, a Turkic tribal confederation, and the Menggusi tribe, a branch of the Tartars.

After the Mongols completed unifying the realm in 1280, four khanates were established: The Ögedei and Chagatai khanates were located west of the Altay Mountains and east of the Amu River (also called Amu Darya), the Il khanate was located west of the Amu River, and the Kipchak khanate was located north of Khwarezmia (or Khorasam). The Yuan territory extended from the Sea of Japan and the middle part of the Korea Peninsula in the northeast, to the Siberian Arctic Circle in the north, and to Nepal, Burma, and Vietnam to the southwest; along the southeast edge, it was bordered by the ocean. Altogether, it was an extremely vast territory.

After Zhu Yuanzhang (later known as Emperor Taizu) acceded as emperor and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368, he led an expedition north to the Central Plain. The last emperor of the Yuan dynasty, Emperor Shun, escaped to the north. The Ming armies launched a series of punitive strikes, and succeeded in unifying the entire realm in 1386. In 1368, after the Yuan emperor escaped to the north, his descendants formed a new regime in 1402 called the Tatars. West of the territory inhabited by the Tatars was the Wala territory. In the 1340s, the Chagatai khanate divided into two parts, the Western Chagatai khanate and Moghulistan (also known as the Eastern Chagatai khanate). In 1418 (the sixteenth year of the Yongle era), Moghulistan moved westward to Ili Baliq, modern Yining, Xinjiang.

Huang Taiji acceded as emperor (later known as Emperor Taizong of Qing) and proclaimed a new dynastic name, Qing, in 1636. He unified various tribes in the northeast, and annexed territories south of the Gobi Desert and Mongolia. The Ming dynasty fell in 1644, and the Qing dynasty continued to expand its territory until in 1759 the entire realm was unified. In 1689 (the twenty-eighth year of the Kangxi era) and in 1727 (the fifth year of the Yongzheng reign), the Qing court and Russia signed treaties setting the borders of the two countries between Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Russia’s far east; they further agreed on the borderline between Outer Mongolia and Siberia. In 1712 (the fifty-first year of the Kangxi era), an agreement was signed defining the Yalu River and the Tumen River as the borderline between Shengjing (modern Shenyang, Liaoning) and the Joseon dynasty on the Korean peninsula.

The Republic of China inherited the territory of the Qing dynasty. In January 1946, the Nanjing government recognized Outer Mongolia as an independent state. In 1947, islands of the South China Sea, occupied by the Japanese during the Anti-Japanese War, were reclaimed. Furthermore, Taiwan province which had been occupied by the Japanese for fifty years was also recovered.

The People's Republic of China is situated in Eastern and Central Asia; it is bordered on the east by the Pacific Ocean. Neighboring nations include Russia, Afghanistan, Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam. China has long coastlines, and a total land area of about 9.6 million square kilometers, about one fourth of Asia.