The Splendid Chinese Culture

Yu of the Xia dynasty
Yu was the founding ruler of the Xia dynasty. A grandson of Zhuanxu, his clan name was Si and his sobriquet Yu. During the Yao and Shun eras, floods were severe and did much damage; Yu successfully tamed the floods and became emperor upon the abdication of Shun. Historically he is known as Yu the Great. During his reign, Yu divided the realm into Nine Provinces and subdued tribal groups such as the Nine-Li and the Three-Miao in the south. As a ruler, he was always close to his people, and worked for their benefit. He was an exemplary and worthy ruler revered by later generations. After eight years on the throne, he died. He had planned to abdicate in favor of his minister Yi; however, the people supported his son Qi’s succession to the throne. This was the start of hereditary rulership.

Cheng Tang
Cheng Tang, whose family name was Zi and given name Lü, was the founder of the Shang dynasty. He first lived at Bo. At that time, Jie was the Xia ruler. He was unprincipled, and because of this Cheng Tang dispatched troops to attack him. As a vassal lord of the Xia dynasty, Cheng Tang had the support of other vassal lords. Jie was eventually defeated and exiled to Nanchao. Cheng Tang established the Shang dynasty, and ruled for thirty years.

Zhòu of Shang
Zhòu was the last ruler of the Shang dynasty. His given name was Xin, but, historically he is known as King Zhòu. As a ruler, his only concern was his extravagant and licentious life style. He constructed many palaces and imperial residences outside of the capital; he frequently waged wars against tribal states and even sent large numbers of troops to attack the Eastern Yi in order to acquire more slaves and wealth. Meanwhile, King Wu of the state of Zhou launched an expedition against him at Mengjin. The Shang troops held their weapons wrong side up to indicate they were unwilling to fight for King Zhòu and would support King Wu instead. At the battle of Muye, the Shang troops were utterly defeated. King Zhòu escaped to Lutai where he set himself on fire. The Shang dynasty came to an end.

King Wen of Zhou – Ji Chang
King Wen’s family name was Ji, given name Chang; his dates are unknown. He was the Zhou tribal leader during the reign of King Zhòu of Shang, and he was enfeoffed as Xi Bo (Lord of the West). He established his state at the foot of Qishan Mountain. He was a benevolent ruler whose political influence spread wide; he was held in high esteem by his people. King Zhòu feared that Ji Chang was getting too powerful and imprisoned him. After his release, Ji Chang continued to practice his policy of benevolence. Most of the feudal lords in the realm pledged allegiance to him, which laid the foundation for the Zhou to eventually overturn the Shang dynasty. King Wu, Ji Chang’s son, established the Zhou dynasty. He honored his father posthumously with the title King Wen.

King You of Zhou – Ji Gongnie
(r. 781 b.c.e–771 b.c.e.)
King You of Zhou, whose family name was Ji, given name Gongnie, was the son of King Xuan. Before the Western Zhou ended, it entered a period of decline. However, this did not deter King You from his dissipated lifestyle; he continued in his ways and paid no attention to state affairs. He divorced his queen, a member of the Shen clan, and installed his favorite concubine Baosi in her place. Once, a false alarm caused the beacon fires to be lit and the vassal lords and their armies rushed to the capital to defend it. Baosi, who found it amusing, laughed. Having found a way to please his new queen, he repeatedly ordered the beacons lit so she could watch the armies rush to defend the city. In addition, he exiled the crown prince Yijiu and installed Baosi’s son in his place. As a result, the Marquise of Shen, father of the deposed queen, was unhappy with the situation. In 771 b.c.e., he launched an armed revolt against the Zhou court. King You ordered the beacon fires lit but no one came to his aid. The king was killed at Lishan, and the Western Zhou was overthrown.

King Ping of Zhou – Ji Yijiu
(? –720 b.c.e.)
Crown Prince Yijiu, son of King You, succeeded to the throne as King Ping. After the tumult of war, the palace buildings in the capital city of Hao were in such dilapidated condition, , they could not be restored in short order. Outside Hao, the Quanrong tribe lived in scattered groups and posed a serious threat to the Zhou imperial house. The site of Luoyi enjoyed a strategic location in the west and was second only to Hao; it was an important political, economic and military center. King Ping eventually moved the capital there. This marks the beginning of the Eastern Zhou (770 b.c.e.–256 b.c.e.).

Qin Shihuang – Ying Zheng
(First Emperor of Qin, 259 b.c.e.–210 b.c.e.)
Ying Zheng, son of King Zhuangxiang of the Qin state, was born at Handan, the capital of Zhao in 259 b.c.e. He was named crown prince at Yongcheng when he was twenty-two years old; following this, he took the reins of government into his hands. First, he executed the members of the queen’s clique, and purged powerful court officials; he then recruited talented people, appointed non-Qin officials (literally “visiting ministers”) to high offices, encouraged agriculture and war, moved troops and deployed forces. It took him ten years to defeat the six rival states. In 221, he unified the realm and established an empire of unprecedented size, the Qin. After ascending the throne, he combined the ancient terms “huang” (sovereign) and “di” (emperor) to form a new word “huangdi” (emperor). He called himself “Shi Huangdi,” the First Emperor. He abandoned the system of using posthumous titles for emperors; instead, starting with him, emperors would be known by their order of succession. He abolished the feudal system and toured the prefectures and counties in order to centralize his political power. He standardized weights, measures, and the writing system. In addition, he built speedways, and reconstructed the border walls in order to consolidate the empire’s defense. He confiscated private weapons, burned books and buried Confucian scholars alive in order to eliminate opposition and control political thought. He made five inspection tours of the realm. He not only expelled the Xiongnu tribes in the north, but also conquered the Baiyue people in the south. He died while on an inspection tour in 210 b.c.e. (the thirty-seventh year of his reign).

Emperor Gaozu of Han – Liu Bang
(256 b.c.e.–195 b.c.e.)
Liu Bang, courtesy name Ji, is commonly known by his temple name Gaozu. He was a native of Pei commandery (in modern Jiangsu). As a leader of the anti-Qin campaign, he was generous and open-minded, knowing how to judge and utilize people’s talents. At first, he joined the insurrectionary forces led by Chen Sheng (d. 208 b.c.e.) and Wu Guang (d. 208 b.c.e.); later, he joined the Chu forces. In 206 b.c.e., he led an attack against the capital at Xianyang and overturned the Qin dynasty. Xiang Yu (232 b.c.e.–202 b.c.e.), known as the “Hegemon-King of Western Chu” (or Overlord of Western Chu), bestowed the title “King of Han” on Liu Bang and relocated him to the remote Shu area. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu contended against one another for four years. Assisted by Zhang Liang (d. 186 b.c.e.), Han Xin (d. 196 b.c.e.), and Xiao He (d. 193 b.c.e.), Liu Bang defeated the Chu troops. He unified the realm and established the Han dynasty in 202 b.c.e.

Emperor Wu of Han – Liu Che
(140 b.c.e.–87 b.c.e.)
Emperor Wu of Han, personal name Liu Che, was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty. He ascended the throne when he was sixteen, and died at the age of seventy. He ruled for fifty-four years; the third longest imperial reign in China (after Kangxi emperor and Qianlong emperor of the Qing dynasty). A worthy and famous ruler in history, Emperor Wu inherited the rich and powerful state foundation left by the emperors Wen and Jing. As soon as he succeeded to the throne, he made the realm even more prosperous. In his domestic policy, he recruited able and virtuous people to serve at court, promoted culture and education activities, and advocated economic development. His foreign policy included punitive expeditions against the various Yi tribes, and opening up the roads to the Western Regions. He greatly enhanced the power and influence of the Han dynasty, and pushed the empire to its zenith.

Emperor Guangwu of Han – Liu Xiu
(6 b.c.e.–57 c.e.)
Liu Xiu, courtesy name Wenshu, a native of Caiyang (modern Zaoyang, Hubei), was a descendant of Emperor Jing of Han and ruled for thirty-three years. Toward the end of Wang Mang’s Xin dynasty, Liu Xiu launched an armed revolt against Wang Mang in the name of restoring the Han empire. He recovered territory in Hebei, conquered Wang Lang’s (d. 24) regime (historically known as Zhao-Han, occupying the Hebei area), and put down a peasant revolt at Tongma. Liu Xiu unified the realm and restored the Han ruling house with its capital at Luoyang. During his reign, his political measures were mostly simple and frugal: he reduced taxes and levies, promoted Confucian teachings, and built up water conservation facilities. Among the rulers of his generation, he stood out for his worthiness.

Emperor Wu of Wei – Cao Cao
(155–220)
Cao Cao, courtesy name Mengde, childhood name Aman, was a native of Qiao in Pei (modern Bo county, Anhui). He was an outstanding statesman and military strategist, directing military operations with extraordinary skill. He participated in the campaign to suppress the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Later, he formed a military alliance with local warlords and joined forces with them to attack Dong Zhuo, a regional general who had instated Emperor Xian in Emperor Shao’s place. All the while, Cao Cao gradually gained power and influence. He was severe and harsh in enforcing the law. In 196, he took Emperor Xian in his charge and established the capital at Xuchang. Having the emperor under his control and ordering the lords in his name, Cao Cao gained political advantage. In 200, he utterly defeated Yuan Shao at Guandu and subsequently united the Central Plain. In 208, Cao Cao led his troops against Liu Biao in the south, but was defeated at Red Cliff. Afterwards, Cao Cao changed his strategy and moved from taking the offensive to the defensive. He stabilized the Guan-Long area and Hanzhong (southwestern Shaanxi). In 220, he died of illness. His son Cao Pi succeeded to the throne, and honored his father with the posthumous title Emperor Wu of Wei.

Emperor Wen of Wei – Cao Pi (187–226)
Cao Pi, courtesy name Zihuan, was the eldest son of Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) during the Three States period. Beginning in his childhood, he accompanied his father on several military campaigns. However, he had a strong interest in literary works, was widely learned and possessed a retentive memory. As a ruler, he was well versed in both civil and military affairs; as a man of letters, he stands out among all other emperors. His writings number more than a hundred, and included the Dian lun (Normative disquisitions) as well as writings in such genres as poetry, fu (an intermediary genre between verse and prose), and letters. Cao Pi’s first appointment was as the leader of court gentleman for miscellaneous uses, which he held while also serving as vice chancellor. After Cao Cao’s death, he inherited his father’s post of chancellor. In 220, Cao Pi deposed the Han Emperor Xian, installed himself as emperor, designated the name of the state as Wei, and established the capital at Luoyang. During his reign, he eliminated those who did not agree with him. But for the sake of the people’s livelihood, he adopted tolerant and benevolent policies by reducing corvée labor and military service.

Emperor Da of Wu – Sun Quan
(182–252)
Sun Quan, courtesy name Zhongmou, was the founder of the Wu state during the Three States period. He was the second son of Sun Jian. Intelligent and quick-witted, he followed his elder brother Sun Ce on military campaigns for many years and also participated in pacifying the regions south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. After Sun Ce’s sudden death, he inherited this same land. In 208, assisted by his famous general Zhou Yu (175–210), Sun Quan led his troops against Cao Cao’s armies at Red Cliff and completely demolished them. This victory resulted in the tripartite division of the realm into the Three States. Defending his position, Sun Qun fought against Cao Cao from the north, and resisted Liu Bei from the west. In 229, he installed himself as the new emperor, and proclaimed a new dynasty, Wu, at Wuchang. During his reign, he set up a ministry of agriculture, opened up military farms, and established a system of commanderies and counties in the Shanyue tribal area, which promoted land development in the areas south of the Yangtze River. Unfortunately, toward the end of his reign, he became obstinate, favored and trusted vile characters, and became suspicious and jealous of his court officials. In addition, heavy taxes and severe punishments caused public grievances throughout the realm.

Emperor Zhaolie of Han – Liu Bei
(161–223)
Liu Bei, courtesy name Xuande, was a native of Zhuo county, Hebei. A descendant of Han Emperor Jing’s son Liu Sheng (165 b.c.e.–113 b.c.e.), Prince Jing of Zhongshan, Liu Bei founded the state of Shu-Han. Toward the end of the Eastern Han, Emperor Ling’s reign, he together with Guan Yu (d. 220) and Zhang Fei (d. 221) fought against the Yellow Turban’s insurrection and made great contributions to pacifying the revolt. He was appointed commandant of Anxi. Assisted by Zhuge Liang (181–234), he joined with Sun Quan to defeat Cao Cao at Red Cliff, and took possession of Yizhou and Hanzhong (southwestern Shaanxi). He proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong. In Chengdu, during the year 221, he declared himself emperor and named his state Han. Liu Bei launched a military campaign against Wu in order to retake Jingzhou. To his surprise, his troops were totally annihilated. Suffering heavy losses, he retreated to Baidicheng, and died of illness at the age of sixty-two.

Emperor Wu of Jin – Sima Yan
(236-290)
Sima Yan, courtesy name Anshi, was a son of Sima Zhao (211–265), and the founder of the Jin dynasty. After Sima Zhao’s death, Sima Yan succeeded to his father’s position as Prince of Jin. He forced Emperor Yuan of Wei to abdicate in favor of him, and established a new capital at Luoyang. In 280, he overturned the Wu state and unified the realm. During his twenty-six-year reign, he enfeoffed many members of the imperial family in order to shore up his support at court. This plan, however, became the root of internal strife among the family. Emperor Wu led a dissolute life; for example, he had three thousand concubines in his imperial harem. After his death, the empire fell into disunion.

Emperor Min of Jin – Sima Ye
(300-317)
Emperor Min, a grandson of Emperor Wu, was the last emperor of the Western Jin. He succeeded to the throne at Chang’an in 313. His four-year reign was known as the Jianxing era. In 316, Liu Yao (d. 329), who was of Xiongnu origin, attacked and occupied the capital. Emperor Min surrendered to Liu Yao and was taken captive. A year later, he was executed and the Western Jin dynasty ended.

Emperor Yuan of Jin – Sima Rui
(276-322)
Sima Rui initially inherited his father’s title, Prince of Langya. In 317, after Emperor Min was killed by the Xiongnu in the north, Sima Rui proclaimed himself emperor under the aegis of the influential Wang clan. He established his capital at Jianye, which he renamed Jiankang. After ascending to the throne, he courted wealthy and influential families; unfortunately, they eventually grew too powerful. Emperor Yuan plotted to eradicate the influential Wang clan, but was attacked preemptively when the Wang clan dispatched troops against the capital, Jiankang. Sima Rui became indignant and died shortly afterwards at the age of forty-six.

Emperor Wu of Song – Liu Yu
(363-422)
Liu Yu, courtesy name Deyu, was the founder of the Song dynasty (historically known as Liu-Song). His ancestral home was Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). His great grandfather, Liu Hun, migrated to the south with the Jin court and settled in Jingkou (modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu). Liu Yu’s family, which had been prosperous, declined when he was young, and he had to make a living by farming and chopping wood. He was intrepid, tenacious, and adventurous. During the reign of Emperor Xiaowu of the Eastern Jin, Liu Yu entered the army and became the leader of a northern garrison militia. He later conquered the Southern Yan and Later Qin, and recovered Ba-Shu. He was promoted to counselor-in-chief, and was made the Prince of Song. In 420, he replaced the ruler of the Jin and installed himself as the new emperor, proclaiming a new dynasty, the Song. During his reign of three years (420–422), he consolidated power, and strictly prohibited wealthy and powerful families from concealing the number of households and the amount of farmland they owned.

Emperor Gao of Qi – Xiao Daocheng
(427-482)
Xiao Daocheng, courtesy name Shaobo, was a native of Lanling of the Southern Dynasties. He reigned from 479 to 482, and was later known as Emperor Gao of Qi. He was a man of great depth and possessed a good command of the classics and history. Originally, he had been a general of the Liu-Song army but seized power thanks to the internal strife among the imperial family members. He killed Emperor Fei, installed Emperor Shun, and enfeoffed himself as Prince of Qi. In 479, he replaced the Song regime and proclaimed himself emperor of the newly created Qi dynasty. He established his capital in Jiankang. After he became emperor, he killed some members of the Song imperial family. During his four-year reign, he set an example for being frugal. Historically his regime was known as the Southern Qi.

Emperor Wu of Liang – Xiao Yan
(464-549)
Xiao Yan, courtesy name Shuda, was a native of Zhongduli, southern Lanling (northwest of modern Wujin, Jiangsu). He was the founder of the Liang dynasty. Early in life, he served as the regional inspector of Yongzhou under the Qi court. During the chaotic years of the Qi dynasty, he seized power by launching an armed revolt; successful, he proclaimed himself emperor and named the dynasty Liang. He reigned for forty-eight years (502–549). Emperor Wu was learned and skilled in writing, calligraphy, and music. He made four tonometers. Later in life, he developed a strong interest in Buddhism, and built numerous monasteries. He wrote Buddhist works such as Niepan (Nirvana), Dapin (Maha), Jingming (The gate of purity to Nirvana), and Sanhui zhujing yiji (Notes on the Trijnana sutras). Four times he performed the she shen rite, donating his body, at the Tongtai Monastery. In order to redeem him, his subjects had to pay large ransoms. He starved to death during the Hou Jing Rebellion (548–552). Xiao Yan was also an accomplished scholar who wrote such works as Xiaojing yi (Commentary on the Classic of Filial Piety), and Zhongyong jiangshu (Annotation on the Doctrine of the Mean).

Emperor Wu of Chen – Chen Baxian
(503-559)
Chen Baxian, courtesy name Xingguo, a native of Changcheng, Wuxing (modern Changxing county, Zhejiang), was the founder of the Chen dynasty. He once served as a petty officer, and assisted General Wang Sengbian (d. 555) during the suppression of the Hou Jing revolt. In 555, Wang Sengbian planned to install Xiao Yuanming as the new emperor so that he could expand the territory under his control; however, Xiao Yuanming was killed by his rival Chen Baxian. After seizing power, Chen Baxian installed Xiao Fangzhi as Emperor Jing, and served as his regent. Chen Baxian defeated the Northern Qi dynasty, and wiped out the remnants of Wang Senbian’s troops. Later, he proclaimed himself Prince of Chen. He enjoyed the support of the people. After his ascension to the throne abdicated by Emperor Jing, he changed the dynastic name to Chen, and established his capital at Jiankang. He reigned for only three years (557–559).

Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei – Tuoba Gui
(371-409)
Tuoba Gui was of Xianbei ancestry. His ancestors founded the Dai kingdom, which was conquered by the Former Qin. After the Battle of the Fei River, the defeated Former Qin fell into disarray. Tuoba Gui took this opportunity and reestablished the former dynasty. In 386, he ascended the throne and founded the Northern Wei dynasty. He was later known as Emperor Daowu of Wei (386–409). Afterwards, he had numerous military exploits, and rose to great heights of power and glory. In 397, he seized the capital of the Later Yan, and occupied the areas north of the Yellow River. In the following year, he established his capital at Pingcheng. He had the Xianbei take up permanent residence in the stipulated areas and engage in farming, and he employed Han Chinese as court officials. Unfortunately, during the last few years of his reign, he treated people harshly. He was killed by his second son Tuoba Shao.

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei – Tuoba Hong
(467-499)
Tuoba Hong, also known as Yuan Hong, reigned from 471 to 499. He was a strong advocate of Chinese culture, and through great effort moved the capital from Pingcheng (modern Datong, Shanxi) to Luoyang in order to carry out a plan of Sinicization. He energetically promoted Chinese culture and education in order to raise the cultural standard of the Xianbei people. He not only forbade his people to wear their traditional attire, he also forbade the use of the Xianbei language and changed their clan names to Han-Chinese surnames. He encouraged and rewarded intermarriage between the Xianbei and the Han Chinese. Emperor Xiaowen also changed the system of weights and measures and consulted the laws and institutions of the Southern Dynasties when he drew up new bureaucratic and court ceremonial systems. In later years, his reforms had a positive effect on the integration of all ethnic groups in China.

Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi – Gao Yang (529-559)
Gao Yang, an ethnic Han-Chinese, courtesy name Zijin, was the second son of Gao Huan (496–547), the grand councilor of the Eastern Wei. Gao Yang forced Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei to abdicate the throne to him in 550. During his reign, he worked hard to make his regime prosperous; he also assigned many Han-Chinese to key positions. He drew up regulations simplifying the complicated criminal laws inherited from the Wei-Jin period and used the military to greatly expand the territory of Northern Qi. Unfortunately, near the end of his reign, he became dissolute and treated his subjects with a total disregard for their lives. If his ministers had not taken over court affairs, the dynasty would not have survived. In 559, at the age of thirty-one, he died of illness.

Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou – Yuwen Yong
(560-578)
Yuwen Yong, who was of Xianbei ancestry, had the courtesy name Luotu. He was intelligent and quick-witted, resolute and astute. In his dealings with his parents as well as other elders, he was filial. In 560, he became emperor and was later known as Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou. During his reign, he changed traditional Xianbei customs, promoted Ruism, and emancipated slaves. He also exacted heavy punishments on corrupt officials, abolished both Buddhism and Daoism, and increased manufacturing. Through his governance, the Northern Zhou grew more powerful. In 577, the Northern Zhou overthrew the Northern Qi and unified northern China. Unfortunately, he died while launching a punitive expedition against the Turks at the age of thirty-five.

Emperor Sui Yang Guang
(569-618)
Yang Guang, the second son of Yang Jian, murdered his father and usurped the throne. He reigned from 604 to 618. He was licentious and wasteful, always eager for quick success and profits; he was also cruel and suspicious. His military endeavors included an expedition to Korea. Among his public works was the construction of the Grand Canal; unfortunately, he imposed heavy taxes and corvée labor, which tired the people and drained the treasury. Toward the end of his reign, peasant uprisings and military mutinies took place one after another; amidst the chaos, warlords were able to set up their own separate regimes. In 616, Emperor Yang was forced to escape to Jiangdu, where he was killed by his general Yuwen Huaji (d. 619) in 618.

Emperor Gaozu of Tang – Li Yuan
(566-626)
Li Yuan was the founder of the Tang dynasty. His surname was Li, given name Yuan, courtesy name Shude, and his ancestral home was Chengji in Longxi (north of modern Qin’an county, Gansu province). He came from a family that had been prominent for generations. At one time, he served as the regent of Taiyuan, a place of strategic importance while also holding military command authority west of Tongguan. In 618, while encamped with the army, he drew up plans and launched an attack against Emperor Yang of Sui; Emperor Yang had become unprincipled and caused the realm to descend into chaos. In Guanzhong, Li Yuan seized power and ascended the imperial throne. He established the capital in Chang’an and founded the Tang dynasty. Afterward, Li Yuan eliminated the warlords who had established their individual regimes and united the realm. He ruled for nine years; in 626, he abdicated in favor of his son, Li Shimin. As an emperor in retirement, he took the title Taishang huang (most high and august emperor). In the ninth year of the Zhenguan era, 635, he died.

Emperor Taizong of Tang – Li Shimin
(599-649)
Li Shimin was the second ruler of the Tang dynasty, and the second son of Emperor Gaozu, Li Yuan. After his father established the Tang dynasty, Li Shimin was appointed director of the imperial secretariat, and Right General-in-Chief because of his meritorious service. He was also given the title Prince of Qin. In 626, Li Shimin led troops to kill both his older brother, the crown prince Li Jiancheng, and his younger brother Li Yuanji. The assassinations occurred inside the Xuanwu Gate on the north side of the imperial palace; for this reason, the event is remembered as the “Xuanwu Gate Incident.” Two days later, Emperor Gaozu issued an edict designating Li Shimin the crown prince. In the eighth month, Emperor Gaozu abdicated the throne and became Taishang huang (most high and august emperor). Li Shimin ascended the throne, and was later known as Emperor Taizong.

During his reign, Emperor Taizong employed able and virtuous men of talent; he eagerly took their good advice; he corrected his errors as soon as he heard of his mistakes; he treated his people like his own children, and he did not differentiate between the Chinese and non-Chinese. His reign was known as the “enlightened government of the Zhenguan era [627–649].” It is regarded as a golden age in Chinese history; and, because of it, he was lauded as an exemplary emperor for a thousand years. In 649, Emperor Taizong died. Emperor Gaozong, Li Zhi, succeeded to the throne.

Wu Zetian
(624-704)
Wu Zetian was the empress of Emperor Gaozong; after his death, she was known as Emperor Zetian of Zhou, the only female monarch in Chinese history (r. 684–704). As a girl of fourteen, she was summoned into the palace as a lady of talent by Emperor Taizong, Li Shimin. After Emperor Gaozong ascended the throne in 655, he named her his empress. Wu Zetian was gifted and bright; she was well versed in literature and history and her resourcefulness was unlimited. Emperor Gaozong suffered from poor health during the last few years of his reign, the Xianqing era (656–661), and entrusted many state affairs to the newly titled empress. Wu Zetian wielded state power, and became increasingly powerful and influential. Emperor Gaozong died in 683. Li Xian, known as Emperor Zhongzong, ascended the throne. Wu Zetian seized the opportunity and took power. A year later in 684, she deposed Emperor Zhongzong, and installed Li Dan emperor; he is known by his posthumous title Emperor Ruizong. During this time Wu Zetian still held power at court. In 690, Wu Zetian proclaimed herself emperor and changed the name of the dynasty to Zhou. She deposed Emperor Ruizong, and made the eastern capital, Luoyang, the new imperial capital. In 705, Prime Minister Zhang Jianzhi and other court officials including Huan Yanfan, Cui Xuan, Jing Hui, and others joined Li Duozuo, Right General-in-Chief of the imperial guards, and launched a coup. They forced her to abdicate. The deposed Emperor Zhongzong was restored to the throne. Wu Zetian died in the eleventh (or twelfth) month of 705.

Emperor Taizu of Later Liang – Zhu Wen
(Zhu Quanzhong, 852–912)
Zhu Quanzhong, given name Wen, was a native of Dangshan (in modern Anhui). He began his military career under Huang Chao (835–884), a leader of rebel peasants. Later, Zhu Wen served as the military commissioner of the Xuanwu circuit. In 907, Emperor Ai of the Tang dynasty abdicated in favor of him. Zhu Wen, whose posthumous title was Taizu, took control, naming his new regime Liang, and establishing his capital at Kaifeng. In 912, he was murdered by his third son, Zhu Yougui. Zhu Wen’s fourth son, Zhu Youzhen, was the third and last emperor of the Liang dynasty. During his reign, the dynasty was overturned by Li Cunxu of the Later Tang. Historically, Zhu Wen’s dynasty was known as the Later Liang.

Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang – Li Siyuan
(926-933)
Li Siyuan, also known as Li Dan, was the adopted son of Emperor Zhuangzong. He was valiant and skilled in fighting. He distinguished himself in the battles for the establishment of the Later Tang regime. His high and powerful position caused Emperor Zhuangzong to become jealous and suspicious of him. Circumstances forced him to launch a military coup and seize power. He installed himself as emperor. (posthumous title Mingzong), and ruled for eight years. He overhauled the political system, eliminated corruption, and brought peace and prosperity to his subjects. He was a rare, worthy ruler of the Five Dynasties.

Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin – Shi Jingtang
(892-942)
Shi Jingtang, also known as Shi Lang, was the founder of the Later Jin dynasty. He was daring and vigorous; he understood the art of political maneuvering, and distinguished himself time and time again on the battlefield. He later married the daughter of Emperor Mingzong, and served in a high level political position under the Later Tang. In order to protect his own interests, Shi Jingtang collaborated with the Khitan and offered them sixteen prefectures. Afterward, the entire Central Plain fell into the hands of non-Han Chinese. On account of his relationship with the Khitan Yelü Deguang, whom he regarded as his father, he was called a traitor. He ascended to the role of emperor of the Later Jin (936–942) with the assistance of the Khitan. However, he was often humiliated by them, and he died of depression and sorrow.

Emperor Gaozu of Later Han – Liu Zhuyuan
(895-948)
Liu Zhiyuan, who was descended from the eastern Turkic Shatuo tribe in modern Xingjiang, was the founder of the Later Han, and is known by his posthumous title Emperor Gaozu. While he was a young man, he was named Prince of Beiping and appointed the military commissioner of the Later Jin. He opposed Shi Jingtang who had given land to the Khitan. The Khitan were forced to return north after an unsuccessful attempt to conquer the Later Jin. Liu Zhiyuan took this opportunity to occupy Kaifeng. He named his new regime Han (historically it was known as Later Han). He ruled for only one year (947–948) before passing the throne to Emperor Yin and dying. Liu Zhiyuan implemented stern laws and gave out severe punishments; his empire was considered the cruelest of the Five Dynasties.

Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou – Chai Rong
(921-959)
Chai Rong’s ancestral home was at Longgang (modern Xingtai county, Hebei). He was the adopted son of Emperor Taizu of the Later Zhou. His reign lasted only six years (954–959). During this time, he reached great heights of military prowess. He personally led his troops in battles all across the realm: he occupied the region around Qinling and Longshan Mountains, and he stabilized the western area of the Huai River. These achievements were unprecedented, and paved the road for the unification achieved later by the Song dynasty. Of all the rulers of the Five Dynasties, he was the most sagacious. He advocated Ruism (Confucianism) and rejected Buddhism. He ordered the dissolution of the Buddhist monasteries, and had the bronze statues smelted and used for minting coins. He also revised music and rituals, and set up rules and regulations for his people. He was lauded by later generations.

Houzhu or last ruler of Southern Tang Li Yu
(936-978)
Li Yu, courtesy name Chongguang, given name Congjia, was the sixth son of Li Jing, Emperor Yuan. He acceded to the throne in 960, and was overthrown in 975. He was the last emperor of the Southern Tang; he was incompetent and sybaritic as an emperor. However, both Li Yu and his father Li Jing were highly accomplished poets who could write ci-poetry (song verse); they were also skilled calligraphers and painters. His simple and straightforward style of writing was filled with genuine emotions. Later generations have regarded him as a master ci-poet. Li Yu was a literatus, not a politician. However, in a twist of fate, he was born into the imperial family. His ci-poem “Yu meiren” (Beauty Yu) is an unmatched masterpiece. Li Yu was historically known as Houzhu (literally “last ruler”) of the Southern Tang, or simply Li Houzhu.

Emperor Taizu of Song – Zhao Kuangyin
(927-976)
Zhao Kuangyin, a native of Zhuozhou (in modern Hebei province), was the founder of the Song dynasty. During the Later Zhou, he served as palace inspectorate-general and as military commissioner of Song prefecture, which placed the control of the military in his hands. He accompanied Emperor Shizong of the Later Zhou into battles across the realm. Time and time again, he distinguished himself on the battlefield. After the coup d’état at Chen Bridge, Zhao Kuangyin acceded as emperor and named his regime Song, which marked the end of the tumultuous years of the Five Dynasties. During Emperor Taizu’s seventeen-year reign (960–976), he prioritized agriculture and promoted education. He was discreet in meting out punishment and levied light taxes; in this manner, he let the people recuperate and revive after so much turmoil. However, he emphasized civil matters to the neglect of military affairs, and he laid particular stress on guarding against his inner circle. It was because of continually weak defense that the Song dynasty eventually declined.

Emperor Huizong – Zhao Ji
(1082-1125)
After Emperor Zhezong of Song passed away, his brother, the Prince of Duan succeeded as emperor; he is known to history as Emperor Huizong. During his reign (1100–1125), he was overambitious and unrealistic, promoting massive construction projects. In addition, he paid little attention to state affairs, but cared only for his own pleasure. In this setting, bureaucratic cliques took the opportunity to accumulate wealth by unfair or illegal means. Eventually the Song lost their territory to the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty in the north. Although Emperor Huizong was a poor ruler, he nevertheless was a versatile and talented artist. The calligraphic style “slender gold” that he created and his paintings are exquisite works of art.

Emperor Gaozong of Song – Zhao Gou
(1107-1187)
Zhao Gou, courtesy name Deji, was the ninth son of Emperor Huizong. After the Song lost territory to the Jin dynasty, he abandoned the Yellow River valley region and moved the capital to Hangzhou (then called Lin’an) despite objections. The territory covered the southern region of China, and historically the dynasty is called the Southern Song. After the Song court moved south, Emperor Gaozong dismissed Li Gang and Zongze for their pro-war views; he appointed Qin Hui (1090–1155) as chancellor, and executed the general Yue Fei (1103–1142). He signed a peace treaty with the Jurchens, and pledged his allegiance to them. It was a situation that the Southern Song were content to live with as they were able to retain control over southern China even after losing the Central Plain. Emperor Gaozong reigned for thirty-six years (1127–1162).

Emperor Taizu of Liao – Yelü Abaoji
(872-926)
Emperor Taizu of Liao, surname Yelü, given name Yi, courtesy name Abaoji, was the founder of the Liao dynasty. He was valiant, excelling in archery and horsemanship; he was also well informed about the world’s affairs. In 901, Yelü Abaoji assumed complete military power and led his Khitan forces against such tribes as the Shiwei, Xibu, and Jurchens; he also united the various Khitan tribes. He established the Khitan empire, also known as the Liao dynasty. He recruited Han Yanhui (882–959), a Han-Chinese, and others to enact laws, reform customs, construct city walls, and create Khitan culture. He further developed agriculture and commerce to accelerate the process of feudalization of the Khitan. In 916, his court officials and various vassal states conferred on him the honorific title “Great Sage and Grand and Brilliant Divine Heavenly Emperor.” His reign title was Shence. He ruled for twenty years, but as emperor only for eleven years.

Emperor Taizu of Jin – Wanyan Aguda
(1068-1123)
Wanyan Aguda, a tribal leader of the Jurchen people, was the founder of the Jin dynasty. He was born to the Wanyan tribe of the Jurchen. Brave and a keen strategist, he was skilled at military maneuvers. In 1113, while serving as the tribal chief, Aguda united nearby tribes, and launched an anti-Liao campaign. In 1115, he formally established his regime, installed himself as emperor, and named his regime the Great Jin. After founding the state, he ordered Wanyan Xiyin (d. 1140) to devise a script for the Jurchen language; he also signed a pact with the Song to jointly attack the Liao. Unfortunately, he died before the Liao was overthrown. He reigned for nine years.

Emperor Taizu of Yuan – Temüjin
(1162-1227)
Chinggis (sometimes spelt Genghis) Khan is also known as Temüjin. His surname was Borjigid, and his given name Temüjin. He came from the Borjigid clan of the Mongols. As the founder of the Mongol empire, he ruled for twenty-two years (1206–1227). In 1189, Temüjin assumed his father’s mantle. In 1206, supported by other Mongol tribes who proclaimed him the Great Khan (emperor) with the honorific title “Chinggis Khan” (King of kings), he formally established the Mongol empire. Chinggis Khan was a man of great talent and bold vision; he was skilled at maneuvering armed forces and was known for his outstanding military exploits. He conquered the Western Liao, eliminated the Xi Xia (Western Xia), and defeated Russian troops. His territory spanned Asia and Europe. Foreign leaders were shocked by his power and influence. He continued expanding his territory, even after establishing the Mongolian state. He set up military, political, and legal systems; put an end to the internecine fighting among the Mongols; promoted social development; and pushed the culture of the grasslands to a new peak. All these achievements laid the foundation for unifying the realm in the future. In 1271, the Mongolian state took the dynastic title of Yuan, and posthumously honored Chinggis Khan as Emperor Taizu of Yuan.

Emperor Taizu of Ming – Zhu Yuanzhang
(1328-1398)
Zhu Yuanzhang was a native of Zhongli, Haozhou (modern Fengyang county, Anhui). His ancestral home was Pei commandery (modern Pei county, Jiangsu). He became a Buddhist monk at an early age taking his vows at Huangjue Monastery. In 1352, he joined an insurgent force lead by Guo Zixing (1302–1355). Zhu Yuanzhang led his troops against the Yuan several times, defeating them in each and every battle. Guo Zixing promoted him and appointed him military commissioner. He also gave his adopted daughter to Zhu Yuanzhang in marriage. After Guo Zixing died of illness, all of his troops submitted to Zhu Yuanzhang. In 1368, Ming troops seized the Yuan capital Dadu, and Emperor Shun fled to the north. In the same year, Zhu Yuanzhang installed himself as emperor in Yingtian prefecture (modern Nanjing), proclaimed a new dynasty, Ming, and named his reign Hongwu. He is known as Emperor Taizu (1368–1398). He considered Yingtian the southern capital, and Kaifeng as the northern capital. In 1371, he conquered the Xi Xia (Western Xia) and consolidated his hold on Sichuan. In 1381, he entered Yunnan, and six years later, he seized the Eastern Liao. By this point, he had more or less united the entire realm. During his reign, he arrogated all political and military power to himself. He ruled his state by draconian legal measures, and severely punished corrupt court officials. However, for the sake of the livelihood of the people, he paid great attention to increasing agricultural productivity, building up the hydraulic works, and encouraging the opening of new farmland. He laid a solid foundation for the future development of the Ming dynasty.

Emperor Chengzu of Ming – Zhu Di
(1360-1424)
Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, was the fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang. His princedom was located in Beiping (modern Beijing). Being brave and skillful in warfare, he distinguished himself in battle. He had coveted the throne for a long time. After Zhu Yuanzhang died, the crown prince Zhu Yunwen, known by his posthumous title Emperor Hui, succeeded to the throne. He felt that the feudatories were becoming increasingly powerful, and threatened his own imperial authority. He therefore decided to reduce their power. Zhu Di learned about his intentions, and took the opportunity to launch a “campaign to restore order.” After three years of fighting, Zhu Di seized the throne in 1403. He is known by his posthumous title Emperor Chengzu of Ming (1403–1424). After having himself installed as emperor, he went on punitive expeditions north of the Gobi Desert five times; moved the capital to Beijing; sent Zheng He (1371–1433) to the Western Seas; and reduced the power of the feudatories. In domestic affairs, he continued his policies of reclaiming wasteland, building water conservancy works. He strengthened the management of the northern region, and ordered the compilation of the Yongle da dian (a great literary compendium). Emperor Chengzu made significant contributions to the development of the Ming empire. He was one of the most powerful and influential rulers of the Ming dynasty.

Emperor Sizong of Ming – Zhu Youjian
(1610-1644)
Emperor Sizong, reign title Chongzhen, was the last emperor (1627–1644) of the Ming dynasty. Ascending the throne at the age of eighteen, he tried hard to save a Ming empire that was on the verge of being overthrown. However, local government officials were too corrupt and the dynasty could not be saved. Widespread mutinies and popular revolts broke out, one after another, on an ever-increasing scale. In 1644, the rebel leader Li Zicheng (1606–1645) established his dynasty in Xi’an with the name “Da shun.” A month later, he attacked Beijing and seized the capital. With Emperor Chongzhen’s suicide, the Ming dynasty ended.

Emperor Shengzu of Qing – Xuanye, Kangxi
(1654-1722)
The Kangxi emperor, personal name Xuanye, is also known as Emperor Shengzu of Qing. He succeeded to the throne when he was eight. As a teenager, in order to remove his regent, Oboi (ca. 1610–1669) from power, he plotted to have him arrested. After Kangxi took the reins of government for himself, he exterminated the Three Regional Princes, recovered Taiwan in the south, resisted the Russians in the north, and signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk, the first peace agreement between the Qing court and Russia. He also conquered the Mongols in the west. He oversaw the construction of water conservancy works, harnessed the Yellow River, encouraged the reclamation of wasteland, and reduced taxes and corvée labor. He treated his people as he would his own children.

Kangxi boldly reformed the outdated systems and policies implemented in the early Qing period. He advocated Ruism and Han culture, eased the conflict between the Manchu people and the Han people, restored the social economy, and strove for the unification and stabilization of the realm. He reigned for sixty-one years (1661–1721), during which time he laid a solid foundation for the future prosperity of the Qing. Historians often list the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors side by side and call their reigns the “Flourishing Kang-Qian era,” a golden age in Chinese history.

Emperor Shizong of Qing – Yinzhen, Yongzheng
(1678-1735)
Yinzhen was the fourth son of the Kangxi emperor. In the battle for the throne, Yinzhen acceded as emperor and named his reign the Yongzheng era. He was devout Buddhist, but he was also a very calculating person, resolute and decisive. He was on the throne for thirteen years (1722–1735). During those years, he worked to make his empire strong and prosperous, strove to reform the old systems, strengthened the local administration, implemented the replacement of the head tax with a land tax, opened up wasteland, established the council of state, eliminated banner chiefs (imperial family members), pacified Qinghai, Tibet, and shored up border areas.

During his reign, the Yongzheng emperor promoted and increased productivity, made the economy more prosperous, augmented the state treasury, and stabilized the political situation. Under him, the Great Qing reached its pinnacle, the fruits of which would be enjoyed by his successor the Qianlong emperor.

Emperor Gaozong of Qing – Hongli, Qianlong (1711-1799)
Hongli was the fourth son of the Yongzheng emperor. He succeeded to the throne after his father’s death. He took the reign title Qianlong, and ascended to the throne in the thirteenth year (1735) of Yongzheng’s reign to become the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty. He had the longest reign of any emperor in Chinese history (counting the three years after he passed the throne to his son) and when he abdicated, he was also the oldest. Upon his accession, the realm was already quite prosperous; he worked diligently to manage state affairs. During his reign, the Qing dynasty reached its greatest heights. His most important achievements were: administrating and managing the northwestern border regions, consolidating and developing an empire with numerous ethnic groups, and defining a solid territory for modern China. Qianlong ruled for sixty years (1735–1795). However, in his old age he became obsessed with grandeur and achievements; in his pursuit of these, he put his trust in the treacherous court official He Shen (1750–1799). Embezzlement and bribe-taking became common practices. Rampant corruption and deterioration brought the court to crisis, and marked the downhill slide of the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong era, in a way, was the turning point of the Qing empire.

King Wen of Zhou — Ji Chang
King Wen’s family name was Ji, given name Chang; his dates are unknown. He was the Zhou tribal leader during the reign of King Zhòu of Shang, and he was enfeoffed as Xi Bo (Lord of the West). He established his state at the foot of Qishan Mountain. He was a benevolent ruler whose political influence spread wide; he was held in high esteem by his people. King Zhòu feared that Ji Chang was getting too powerful and imprisoned him. After his release, Ji Chang continued to practice his policy of benevolence. Most of the feudal lords in the realm pledged allegiance to him, which laid the foundation for the Zhou to eventually overturn the Shang dynasty. King Wu, Ji Chang’s son, established the Zhou dynasty. He honored his father posthumously with the title King Wen.

King You of Zhou – Ji Gongnie (r. 781 b.c.e–771 b.c.e.)
King You of Zhou, whose family name was Ji, given name Gongnie, was the son of King Xuan. Before the Western Zhou ended, it entered a period of decline. However, this did not deter King You from his dissipated lifestyle; he continued in his ways and paid no attention to state affairs. He divorced his queen, a member of the Shen clan, and installed his favorite concubine Baosi in her place. Once, a false alarm caused the beacon fires to be lit and the vassal lords and their armies rushed to the capital to defend it. Baosi, who found it amusing, laughed. Having found a way to please his new queen, he repeatedly ordered the beacons lit so she could watch the armies rush to defend the city. In addition, he exiled the crown prince Yijiu and installed Baosi’s son in his place. As a result, the Marquise of Shen, father of the deposed queen, was unhappy with the situation. In 771 b.c.e., he launched an armed revolt against the Zhou court. King You ordered the beacon fires lit but no one came to his aid. The king was killed at Lishan, and the Western Zhou was overthrown.

King Ping of Zhou – Ji Yijiu (? –720 b.c.e.)
Crown Prince Yijiu, son of King You, succeeded to the throne as King Ping. After the tumult of war, the palace buildings in the capital city of Hao were in such dilapidated condition, , they could not be restored in short order. Outside Hao, the Quanrong tribe lived in scattered groups and posed a serious threat to the Zhou imperial house. The site of Luoyi enjoyed a strategic location in the west and was second only to Hao; it was an important political, economic and military center. King Ping eventually moved the capital there. This marks the beginning of the Eastern Zhou (770 b.c.e.–256 b.c.e.).

Qin Shihuang – Ying Zheng (First Emperor of Qin, 259 b.c.e.–210 b.c.e.)
Ying Zheng, son of King Zhuangxiang of the Qin state, was born at Handan, the capital of Zhao in 259 b.c.e. He was named crown prince at Yongcheng when he was twenty-two years old; following this, he took the reins of government into his hands. First, he executed the members of the queen’s clique, and purged powerful court officials; he then recruited talented people, appointed non-Qin officials (literally “visiting ministers”) to high offices, encouraged agriculture and war, moved troops and deployed forces. It took him ten years to defeat the six rival states. In 221, he unified the realm and established an empire of unprecedented size, the Qin. After ascending the throne, he combined the ancient terms “huang” (sovereign) and “di” (emperor) to form a new word “huangdi” (emperor). He called himself “Shi Huangdi,” the First Emperor. He abandoned the system of using posthumous titles for emperors; instead, starting with him, emperors would be known by their order of succession. He abolished the feudal system and toured the prefectures and counties in order to centralize his political power. He standardized weights, measures, and the writing system. In addition, he built speedways, and reconstructed the border walls in order to consolidate the empire’s defense. He confiscated private weapons, burned books and buried Confucian scholars alive in order to eliminate opposition and control political thought. He made five inspection tours of the realm. He not only expelled the Xiongnu tribes in the north, but also conquered the Baiyue people in the south. He died while on an inspection tour in 210 b.c.e. (the thirty-seventh year of his reign).

Emperor Gaozu of Han – Liu Bang (256 b.c.e.–195 b.c.e.)
Liu Bang, courtesy name Ji, is commonly known by his temple name Gaozu. He was a native of Pei commandery (in modern Jiangsu). As a leader of the anti-Qin campaign, he was generous and open-minded, knowing how to judge and utilize people’s talents. At first, he joined the insurrectionary forces led by Chen Sheng (d. 208 b.c.e.) and Wu Guang (d. 208 b.c.e.); later, he joined the Chu forces. In 206 b.c.e., he led an attack against the capital at Xianyang and overturned the Qin dynasty. Xiang Yu (232 b.c.e.–202 b.c.e.), known as the “Hegemon-King of Western Chu” (or Overlord of Western Chu), bestowed the title “King of Han” on Liu Bang and relocated him to the remote Shu area. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu contended against one another for four years. Assisted by Zhang Liang (d. 186 b.c.e.), Han Xin (d. 196 b.c.e.), and Xiao He (d. 193 b.c.e.), Liu Bang defeated the Chu troops. He unified the realm and established the Han dynasty in 202 b.c.e.

Emperor Wu of Han – Liu Che (140 b.c.e.–87 b.c.e.)
Emperor Wu of Han, personal name Liu Che, was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty. He ascended the throne when he was sixteen, and died at the age of seventy. He ruled for fifty-four years; the third longest imperial reign in China (after Kangxi emperor and Qianlong emperor of the Qing dynasty). A worthy and famous ruler in history, Emperor Wu inherited the rich and powerful state foundation left by the emperors Wen and Jing. As soon as he succeeded to the throne, he made the realm even more prosperous. In his domestic policy, he recruited able and virtuous people to serve at court, promoted culture and education activities, and advocated economic development. His foreign policy included punitive expeditions against the various Yi tribes, and opening up the roads to the Western Regions. He greatly enhanced the power and influence of the Han dynasty, and pushed the empire to its zenith.

Emperor Guangwu of Han – Liu Xiu (6 b.c.e.–57 c.e.)
Liu Xiu, courtesy name Wenshu, a native of Caiyang (modern Zaoyang, Hubei), was a descendant of Emperor Jing of Han and ruled for thirty-three years. Toward the end of Wang Mang’s Xin dynasty, Liu Xiu launched an armed revolt against Wang Mang in the name of restoring the Han empire. He recovered territory in Hebei, conquered Wang Lang’s (d. 24) regime (historically known as Zhao-Han, occupying the Hebei area), and put down a peasant revolt at Tongma. Liu Xiu unified the realm and restored the Han ruling house with its capital at Luoyang. During his reign, his political measures were mostly simple and frugal: he reduced taxes and levies, promoted Confucian teachings, and built up water conservation facilities. Among the rulers of his generation, he stood out for his worthiness.

Emperor Wu of Wei – Cao Cao (155-220)
Cao Cao, courtesy name Mengde, childhood name Aman, was a native of Qiao in Pei (modern Bo county, Anhui). He was an outstanding statesman and military strategist, directing military operations with extraordinary skill. He participated in the campaign to suppress the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Later, he formed a military alliance with local warlords and joined forces with them to attack Dong Zhuo, a regional general who had instated Emperor Xian in Emperor Shao’s place. All the while, Cao Cao gradually gained power and influence. He was severe and harsh in enforcing the law. In 196, he took Emperor Xian in his charge and established the capital at Xuchang. Having the emperor under his control and ordering the lords in his name, Cao Cao gained political advantage. In 200, he utterly defeated Yuan Shao at Guandu and subsequently united the Central Plain. In 208, Cao Cao led his troops against Liu Biao in the south, but was defeated at Red Cliff. Afterwards, Cao Cao changed his strategy and moved from taking the offensive to the defensive. He stabilized the Guan-Long area and Hanzhong (southwestern Shaanxi). In 220, he died of illness. His son Cao Pi succeeded to the throne, and honored his father with the posthumous title Emperor Wu of Wei.

Emperor Wen of Wei – Cao Pi (187-226)
Cao Pi, courtesy name Zihuan, was the eldest son of Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) during the Three States period. Beginning in his childhood, he accompanied his father on several military campaigns. However, he had a strong interest in literary works, was widely learned and possessed a retentive memory. As a ruler, he was well versed in both civil and military affairs; as a man of letters, he stands out among all other emperors. His writings number more than a hundred, and included the Dian lun (Normative disquisitions) as well as writings in such genres as poetry, fu (an intermediary genre between verse and prose), and letters. Cao Pi’s first appointment was as the leader of court gentleman for miscellaneous uses, which he held while also serving as vice chancellor. After Cao Cao’s death, he inherited his father’s post of chancellor. In 220, Cao Pi deposed the Han Emperor Xian, installed himself as emperor, designated the name of the state as Wei, and established the capital at Luoyang. During his reign, he eliminated those who did not agree with him. But for the sake of the people’s livelihood, he adopted tolerant and benevolent policies by reducing corvée labor and military service.

Emperor Da of Wu – Sun Quan (182-252)
Sun Quan, courtesy name Zhongmou, was the founder of the Wu state during the Three States period. He was the second son of Sun Jian. Intelligent and quick-witted, he followed his elder brother Sun Ce on military campaigns for many years and also participated in pacifying the regions south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. After Sun Ce’s sudden death, he inherited this same land. In 208, assisted by his famous general Zhou Yu (175–210), Sun Quan led his troops against Cao Cao’s armies at Red Cliff and completely demolished them. This victory resulted in the tripartite division of the realm into the Three States. Defending his position, Sun Qun fought against Cao Cao from the north, and resisted Liu Bei from the west. In 229, he installed himself as the new emperor, and proclaimed a new dynasty, Wu, at Wuchang. During his reign, he set up a ministry of agriculture, opened up military farms, and established a system of commanderies and counties in the Shanyue tribal area, which promoted land development in the areas south of the Yangtze River. Unfortunately, toward the end of his reign, he became obstinate, favored and trusted vile characters, and became suspicious and jealous of his court officials. In addition, heavy taxes and severe punishments caused public grievances throughout the realm.

Emperor Zhaolie of Han – Liu Bei
(161-223)
Liu Bei, courtesy name Xuande, was a native of Zhuo county, Hebei. A descendant of Han Emperor Jing’s son Liu Sheng (165 b.c.e.–113 b.c.e.), Prince Jing of Zhongshan, Liu Bei founded the state of Shu-Han. Toward the end of the Eastern Han, Emperor Ling’s reign, he together with Guan Yu (d. 220) and Zhang Fei (d. 221) fought against the Yellow Turban’s insurrection and made great contributions to pacifying the revolt. He was appointed commandant of Anxi. Assisted by Zhuge Liang (181–234), he joined with Sun Quan to defeat Cao Cao at Red Cliff, and took possession of Yizhou and Hanzhong (southwestern Shaanxi). He proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong. In Chengdu, during the year 221, he declared himself emperor and named his state Han. Liu Bei launched a military campaign against Wu in order to retake Jingzhou. To his surprise, his troops were totally annihilated. Suffering heavy losses, he retreated to Baidicheng, and died of illness at the age of sixty-two.

Emperor Wu of Jin – Sima Yan (236-290)
Sima Yan, courtesy name Anshi, was a son of Sima Zhao (211–265), and the founder of the Jin dynasty. After Sima Zhao’s death, Sima Yan succeeded to his father’s position as Prince of Jin. He forced Emperor Yuan of Wei to abdicate in favor of him, and established a new capital at Luoyang. In 280, he overturned the Wu state and unified the realm. During his twenty-six-year reign, he enfeoffed many members of the imperial family in order to shore up his support at court. This plan, however, became the root of internal strife among the family. Emperor Wu led a dissolute life; for example, he had three thousand concubines in his imperial harem. After his death, the empire fell into disunion.

Emperor Min of Jin – Sima Ye (300-317)
Emperor Min, a grandson of Emperor Wu, was the last emperor of the Western Jin. He succeeded to the throne at Chang’an in 313. His four-year reign was known as the Jianxing era. In 316, Liu Yao (d. 329), who was of Xiongnu origin, attacked and occupied the capital. Emperor Min surrendered to Liu Yao and was taken captive. A year later, he was executed and the Western Jin dynasty ended.

Emperor Yuan of Jin – Sima Rui (276-322)
Sima Rui initially inherited his father’s title, Prince of Langya. In 317, after Emperor Min was killed by the Xiongnu in the north, Sima Rui proclaimed himself emperor under the aegis of the influential Wang clan. He established his capital at Jianye, which he renamed Jiankang. After ascending to the throne, he courted wealthy and influential families; unfortunately, they eventually grew too powerful. Emperor Yuan plotted to eradicate the influential Wang clan, but was attacked preemptively when the Wang clan dispatched troops against the capital, Jiankang. Sima Rui became indignant and died shortly afterwards at the age of forty-six.

Emperor Wu of Song – Liu Yu (363-422)
Liu Yu, courtesy name Deyu, was the founder of the Song dynasty (historically known as Liu-Song). His ancestral home was Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). His great grandfather, Liu Hun, migrated to the south with the Jin court and settled in Jingkou (modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu). Liu Yu’s family, which had been prosperous, declined when he was young, and he had to make a living by farming and chopping wood. He was intrepid, tenacious, and adventurous. During the reign of Emperor Xiaowu of the Eastern Jin, Liu Yu entered the army and became the leader of a northern garrison militia. He later conquered the Southern Yan and Later Qin, and recovered Ba-Shu. He was promoted to counselor-in-chief, and was made the Prince of Song. In 420, he replaced the ruler of the Jin and installed himself as the new emperor, proclaiming a new dynasty, the Song. During his reign of three years (420–422), he consolidated power, and strictly prohibited wealthy and powerful families from concealing the number of households and the amount of farmland they owned.

Emperor Gao of Qi – Xiao Daocheng (427-482)
Xiao Daocheng, courtesy name Shaobo, was a native of Lanling of the Southern Dynasties. He reigned from 479 to 482, and was later known as Emperor Gao of Qi. He was a man of great depth and possessed a good command of the classics and history. Originally, he had been a general of the Liu-Song army but seized power thanks to the internal strife among the imperial family members. He killed Emperor Fei, installed Emperor Shun, and enfeoffed himself as Prince of Qi. In 479, he replaced the Song regime and proclaimed himself emperor of the newly created Qi dynasty. He established his capital in Jiankang. After he became emperor, he killed some members of the Song imperial family. During his four-year reign, he set an example for being frugal. Historically his regime was known as the Southern Qi.

Emperor Wu of Liang – Xiao Yan (464-549)
Xiao Yan, courtesy name Shuda, was a native of Zhongduli, southern Lanling (northwest of modern Wujin, Jiangsu). He was the founder of the Liang dynasty. Early in life, he served as the regional inspector of Yongzhou under the Qi court. During the chaotic years of the Qi dynasty, he seized power by launching an armed revolt; successful, he proclaimed himself emperor and named the dynasty Liang. He reigned for forty-eight years (502–549). Emperor Wu was learned and skilled in writing, calligraphy, and music. He made four tonometers. Later in life, he developed a strong interest in Buddhism, and built numerous monasteries. He wrote Buddhist works such as Niepan (Nirvana), Dapin (Maha), Jingming (The gate of purity to Nirvana), and Sanhui zhujing yiji (Notes on the Trijnana sutras). Four times he performed the she shen rite, donating his body, at the Tongtai Monastery. In order to redeem him, his subjects had to pay large ransoms. He starved to death during the Hou Jing Rebellion (548–552). Xiao Yan was also an accomplished scholar who wrote such works as Xiaojing yi (Commentary on the Classic of Filial Piety), and Zhongyong jiangshu (Annotation on the Doctrine of the Mean).

Emperor Wu of Chen – Chen Baxian (503-559)
Chen Baxian, courtesy name Xingguo, a native of Changcheng, Wuxing (modern Changxing county, Zhejiang), was the founder of the Chen dynasty. He once served as a petty officer, and assisted General Wang Sengbian (d. 555) during the suppression of the Hou Jing revolt. In 555, Wang Sengbian planned to install Xiao Yuanming as the new emperor so that he could expand the territory under his control; however, Xiao Yuanming was killed by his rival Chen Baxian. After seizing power, Chen Baxian installed Xiao Fangzhi as Emperor Jing, and served as his regent. Chen Baxian defeated the Northern Qi dynasty, and wiped out the remnants of Wang Senbian’s troops. Later, he proclaimed himself Prince of Chen. He enjoyed the support of the people. After his ascension to the throne abdicated by Emperor Jing, he changed the dynastic name to Chen, and established his capital at Jiankang. He reigned for only three years (557–559).

Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei – Tuoba Gui (371-409)
Tuoba Gui was of Xianbei ancestry. His ancestors founded the Dai kingdom, which was conquered by the Former Qin. After the Battle of the Fei River, the defeated Former Qin fell into disarray. Tuoba Gui took this opportunity and reestablished the former dynasty. In 386, he ascended the throne and founded the Northern Wei dynasty. He was later known as Emperor Daowu of Wei (386–409). Afterwards, he had numerous military exploits, and rose to great heights of power and glory. In 397, he seized the capital of the Later Yan, and occupied the areas north of the Yellow River. In the following year, he established his capital at Pingcheng. He had the Xianbei take up permanent residence in the stipulated areas and engage in farming, and he employed Han Chinese as court officials. Unfortunately, during the last few years of his reign, he treated people harshly. He was killed by his second son Tuoba Shao.

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei – Tuoba Hong (467-499)
Tuoba Hong, also known as Yuan Hong, reigned from 471 to 499. He was a strong advocate of Chinese culture, and through great effort moved the capital from Pingcheng (modern Datong, Shanxi) to Luoyang in order to carry out a plan of Sinicization. He energetically promoted Chinese culture and education in order to raise the cultural standard of the Xianbei people. He not only forbade his people to wear their traditional attire, he also forbade the use of the Xianbei language and changed their clan names to Han-Chinese surnames. He encouraged and rewarded intermarriage between the Xianbei and the Han Chinese. Emperor Xiaowen also changed the system of weights and measures and consulted the laws and institutions of the Southern Dynasties when he drew up new bureaucratic and court ceremonial systems. In later years, his reforms had a positive effect on the integration of all ethnic groups in China.

Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou – Yuwen Yong (560-578)
Yuwen Yong, who was of Xianbei ancestry, had the courtesy name Luotu. He was intelligent and quick-witted, resolute and astute. In his dealings with his parents as well as other elders, he was filial. In 560, he became emperor and was later known as Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou. During his reign, he changed traditional Xianbei customs, promoted Ruism, and emancipated slaves. He also exacted heavy punishments on corrupt officials, abolished both Buddhism and Daoism, and increased manufacturing. Through his governance, the Northern Zhou grew more powerful. In 577, the Northern Zhou overthrew the Northern Qi and unified northern China. Unfortunately, he died while launching a punitive expedition against the Turks at the age of thirty-five.

Emperor Sui – Yang Guang (569-618)
Yang Guang, the second son of Yang Jian, murdered his father and usurped the throne. He reigned from 604 to 618. He was licentious and wasteful, always eager for quick success and profits; he was also cruel and suspicious. His military endeavors included an expedition to Korea. Among his public works was the construction of the Grand Canal; unfortunately, he imposed heavy taxes and corvée labor, which tired the people and drained the treasury. Toward the end of his reign, peasant uprisings and military mutinies took place one after another; amidst the chaos, warlords were able to set up their own separate regimes. In 616, Emperor Yang was forced to escape to Jiangdu, where he was killed by his general Yuwen Huaji (d. 619) in 618.

Emperor Gaozu of Tang – Li Yuan (566-626)
Li Yuan was the founder of the Tang dynasty. His surname was Li, given name Yuan, courtesy name Shude, and his ancestral home was Chengji in Longxi (north of modern Qin’an county, Gansu province). He came from a family that had been prominent for generations. At one time, he served as the regent of Taiyuan, a place of strategic importance while also holding military command authority west of Tongguan. In 618, while encamped with the army, he drew up plans and launched an attack against Emperor Yang of Sui; Emperor Yang had become unprincipled and caused the realm to descend into chaos. In Guanzhong, Li Yuan seized power and ascended the imperial throne. He established the capital in Chang’an and founded the Tang dynasty. Afterward, Li Yuan eliminated the warlords who had established their individual regimes and united the realm. He ruled for nine years; in 626, he abdicated in favor of his son, Li Shimin. As an emperor in retirement, he took the title Taishang huang (most high and august emperor). In the ninth year of the Zhenguan era, 635, he died.

Emperor Taizong of Tang – Li Shimin (599-649)
Li Shimin was the second ruler of the Tang dynasty, and the second son of Emperor Gaozu, Li Yuan. After his father established the Tang dynasty, Li Shimin was appointed director of the imperial secretariat, and Right General-in-Chief because of his meritorious service. He was also given the title Prince of Qin. In 626, Li Shimin led troops to kill both his older brother, the crown prince Li Jiancheng, and his younger brother Li Yuanji. The assassinations occurred inside the Xuanwu Gate on the north side of the imperial palace; for this reason, the event is remembered as the “Xuanwu Gate Incident.” Two days later, Emperor Gaozu issued an edict designating Li Shimin the crown prince. In the eighth month, Emperor Gaozu abdicated the throne and became Taishang huang (most high and august emperor). Li Shimin ascended the throne, and was later known as Emperor Taizong.

During his reign, Emperor Taizong employed able and virtuous men of talent; he eagerly took their good advice; he corrected his errors as soon as he heard of his mistakes; he treated his people like his own children, and he did not differentiate between the Chinese and non-Chinese. His reign was known as the “enlightened government of the Zhenguan era [627–649].” It is regarded as a golden age in Chinese history; and, because of it, he was lauded as an exemplary emperor for a thousand years. In 649, Emperor Taizong died. Emperor Gaozong, Li Zhi, succeeded to the throne.

Wu Zetian (624-704)
Wu Zetian was the empress of Emperor Gaozong; after his death, she was known as Emperor Zetian of Zhou, the only female monarch in Chinese history (r. 684–704). As a girl of fourteen, she was summoned into the palace as a lady of talent by Emperor Taizong, Li Shimin. After Emperor Gaozong ascended the throne in 655, he named her his empress. Wu Zetian was gifted and bright; she was well versed in literature and history and her resourcefulness was unlimited. Emperor Gaozong suffered from poor health during the last few years of his reign, the Xianqing era (656–661), and entrusted many state affairs to the newly titled empress. Wu Zetian wielded state power, and became increasingly powerful and influential. Emperor Gaozong died in 683. Li Xian, known as Emperor Zhongzong, ascended the throne. Wu Zetian seized the opportunity and took power. A year later in 684, she deposed Emperor Zhongzong, and installed Li Dan emperor; he is known by his posthumous title Emperor Ruizong. During this time Wu Zetian still held power at court. In 690, Wu Zetian proclaimed herself emperor and changed the name of the dynasty to Zhou. She deposed Emperor Ruizong, and made the eastern capital, Luoyang, the new imperial capital. In 705, Prime Minister Zhang Jianzhi and other court officials including Huan Yanfan, Cui Xuan, Jing Hui, and others joined Li Duozuo, Right General-in-Chief of the imperial guards, and launched a coup. They forced her to abdicate. The deposed Emperor Zhongzong was restored to the throne. Wu Zetian died in the eleventh (or twelfth) month of 705.

Emperor Taizu of Later Liang – Zhu Wen (Zhu Quanzhong, 852–912)
Zhu Quanzhong, given name Wen, was a native of Dangshan (in modern Anhui). He began his military career under Huang Chao (835–884), a leader of rebel peasants. Later, Zhu Wen served as the military commissioner of the Xuanwu circuit. In 907, Emperor Ai of the Tang dynasty abdicated in favor of him. Zhu Wen, whose posthumous title was Taizu, took control, naming his new regime Liang, and establishing his capital at Kaifeng. In 912, he was murdered by his third son, Zhu Yougui. Zhu Wen’s fourth son, Zhu Youzhen, was the third and last emperor of the Liang dynasty. During his reign, the dynasty was overturned by Li Cunxu of the Later Tang. Historically, Zhu Wen’s dynasty was known as the Later Liang.

Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang Li Siyuan (926-933)
Li Siyuan, also known as Li Dan, was the adopted son of Emperor Zhuangzong. He was valiant and skilled in fighting. He distinguished himself in the battles for the establishment of the Later Tang regime. His high and powerful position caused Emperor Zhuangzong to become jealous and suspicious of him. Circumstances forced him to launch a military coup and seize power. He installed himself as emperor. (posthumous title Mingzong), and ruled for eight years. He overhauled the political system, eliminated corruption, and brought peace and prosperity to his subjects. He was a rare, worthy ruler of the Five Dynasties.

Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin – Shi Jingtang (892-942)
Shi Jingtang, also known as Shi Lang, was the founder of the Later Jin dynasty. He was daring and vigorous; he understood the art of political maneuvering, and distinguished himself time and time again on the battlefield. He later married the daughter of Emperor Mingzong, and served in a high level political position under the Later Tang. In order to protect his own interests, Shi Jingtang collaborated with the Khitan and offered them sixteen prefectures. Afterward, the entire Central Plain fell into the hands of non-Han Chinese. On account of his relationship with the Khitan Yelü Deguang, whom he regarded as his father, he was called a traitor. He ascended to the role of emperor of the Later Jin (936–942) with the assistance of the Khitan. However, he was often humiliated by them, and he died of depression and sorrow.

Emperor Gaozu of Later Han – Liu Zhuyuan (895-948)
Liu Zhiyuan, who was descended from the eastern Turkic Shatuo tribe in modern Xingjiang, was the founder of the Later Han, and is known by his posthumous title Emperor Gaozu. While he was a young man, he was named Prince of Beiping and appointed the military commissioner of the Later Jin. He opposed Shi Jingtang who had given land to the Khitan. The Khitan were forced to return north after an unsuccessful attempt to conquer the Later Jin. Liu Zhiyuan took this opportunity to occupy Kaifeng. He named his new regime Han (historically it was known as Later Han). He ruled for only one year (947–948) before passing the throne to Emperor Yin and dying. Liu Zhiyuan implemented stern laws and gave out severe punishments; his empire was considered the cruelest of the Five Dynasties.

Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou – Chai Rong (921-959)
Chai Rong’s ancestral home was at Longgang (modern Xingtai county, Hebei). He was the adopted son of Emperor Taizu of the Later Zhou. His reign lasted only six years (954–959). During this time, he reached great heights of military prowess. He personally led his troops in battles all across the realm: he occupied the region around Qinling and Longshan Mountains, and he stabilized the western area of the Huai River. These achievements were unprecedented, and paved the road for the unification achieved later by the Song dynasty. Of all the rulers of the Five Dynasties, he was the most sagacious. He advocated Ruism (Confucianism) and rejected Buddhism. He ordered the dissolution of the Buddhist monasteries, and had the bronze statues smelted and used for minting coins. He also revised music and rituals, and set up rules and regulations for his people. He was lauded by later generations.

Houzhu or last ruler of Southern Tang – Li Yu (936-978)
Li Yu, courtesy name Chongguang, given name Congjia, was the sixth son of Li Jing, Emperor Yuan. He acceded to the throne in 960, and was overthrown in 975. He was the last emperor of the Southern Tang; he was incompetent and sybaritic as an emperor. However, both Li Yu and his father Li Jing were highly accomplished poets who could write ci-poetry (song verse); they were also skilled calligraphers and painters. His simple and straightforward style of writing was filled with genuine emotions. Later generations have regarded him as a master ci-poet. Li Yu was a literatus, not a politician. However, in a twist of fate, he was born into the imperial family. His ci-poem “Yu meiren” (Beauty Yu) is an unmatched masterpiece. Li Yu was historically known as Houzhu (literally “last ruler”) of the Southern Tang, or simply Li Houzhu.

Emperor Taizu of Song – Zhao Kuangyin (927-976)
Zhao Kuangyin, a native of Zhuozhou (in modern Hebei province), was the founder of the Song dynasty. During the Later Zhou, he served as palace inspectorate-general and as military commissioner of Song prefecture, which placed the control of the military in his hands. He accompanied Emperor Shizong of the Later Zhou into battles across the realm. Time and time again, he distinguished himself on the battlefield. After the coup d’état at Chen Bridge, Zhao Kuangyin acceded as emperor and named his regime Song, which marked the end of the tumultuous years of the Five Dynasties. During Emperor Taizu’s seventeen-year reign (960–976), he prioritized agriculture and promoted education. He was discreet in meting out punishment and levied light taxes; in this manner, he let the people recuperate and revive after so much turmoil. However, he emphasized civil matters to the neglect of military affairs, and he laid particular stress on guarding against his inner circle. It was because of continually weak defense that the Song dynasty eventually declined.

Emperor Huizong – Zhao Ji (1082-1125)
After Emperor Zhezong of Song passed away, his brother, the Prince of Duan succeeded as emperor; he is known to history as Emperor Huizong. During his reign (1100–1125), he was overambitious and unrealistic, promoting massive construction projects. In addition, he paid little attention to state affairs, but cared only for his own pleasure. In this setting, bureaucratic cliques took the opportunity to accumulate wealth by unfair or illegal means. Eventually the Song lost their territory to the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty in the north. Although Emperor Huizong was a poor ruler, he nevertheless was a versatile and talented artist. The calligraphic style “slender gold” that he created and his paintings are exquisite works of art.

Emperor Gaozong of Song – Zhao Gou (1107-1187年)
Zhao Gou, courtesy name Deji, was the ninth son of Emperor Huizong. After the Song lost territory to the Jin dynasty, he abandoned the Yellow River valley region and moved the capital to Hangzhou (then called Lin’an) despite objections. The territory covered the southern region of China, and historically the dynasty is called the Southern Song. After the Song court moved south, Emperor Gaozong dismissed Li Gang and Zongze for their pro-war views; he appointed Qin Hui (1090–1155) as chancellor, and executed the general Yue Fei (1103–1142). He signed a peace treaty with the Jurchens, and pledged his allegiance to them. It was a situation that the Southern Song were content to live with as they were able to retain control over southern China even after losing the Central Plain. Emperor Gaozong reigned for thirty-six years (1127–1162).

Emperor Taizu of Liao – Yelü Abaoji (872-926)
Emperor Taizu of Liao, surname Yelü, given name Yi, courtesy name Abaoji, was the founder of the Liao dynasty. He was valiant, excelling in archery and horsemanship; he was also well informed about the world’s affairs. In 901, Yelü Abaoji assumed complete military power and led his Khitan forces against such tribes as the Shiwei, Xibu, and Jurchens; he also united the various Khitan tribes. He established the Khitan empire, also known as the Liao dynasty. He recruited Han Yanhui (882–959), a Han-Chinese, and others to enact laws, reform customs, construct city walls, and create Khitan culture. He further developed agriculture and commerce to accelerate the process of feudalization of the Khitan. In 916, his court officials and various vassal states conferred on him the honorific title “Great Sage and Grand and Brilliant Divine Heavenly Emperor.” His reign title was Shence. He ruled for twenty years, but as emperor only for eleven years.

Emperor Taizu of Jin – Wanyan Aguda (1068-1123)
Wanyan Aguda, a tribal leader of the Jurchen people, was the founder of the Jin dynasty. He was born to the Wanyan tribe of the Jurchen. Brave and a keen strategist, he was skilled at military maneuvers. In 1113, while serving as the tribal chief, Aguda united nearby tribes, and launched an anti-Liao campaign. In 1115, he formally established his regime, installed himself as emperor, and named his regime the Great Jin. After founding the state, he ordered Wanyan Xiyin (d. 1140) to devise a script for the Jurchen language; he also signed a pact with the Song to jointly attack the Liao. Unfortunately, he died before the Liao was overthrown. He reigned for nine years.

Emperor Taizu of Yuan – Temüjin (1162-1227)
Chinggis (sometimes spelt Genghis) Khan is also known as Temüjin. His surname was Borjigid, and his given name Temüjin. He came from the Borjigid clan of the Mongols. As the founder of the Mongol empire, he ruled for twenty-two years (1206–1227). In 1189, Temüjin assumed his father’s mantle. In 1206, supported by other Mongol tribes who proclaimed him the Great Khan (emperor) with the honorific title “Chinggis Khan” (King of kings), he formally established the Mongol empire. Chinggis Khan was a man of great talent and bold vision; he was skilled at maneuvering armed forces and was known for his outstanding military exploits. He conquered the Western Liao, eliminated the Xi Xia (Western Xia), and defeated Russian troops. His territory spanned Asia and Europe. Foreign leaders were shocked by his power and influence. He continued expanding his territory, even after establishing the Mongolian state. He set up military, political, and legal systems; put an end to the internecine fighting among the Mongols; promoted social development; and pushed the culture of the grasslands to a new peak. All these achievements laid the foundation for unifying the realm in the future. In 1271, the Mongolian state took the dynastic title of Yuan, and posthumously honored Chinggis Khan as Emperor Taizu of Yuan.

Emperor Taizu of Ming – Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398)
Zhu Yuanzhang was a native of Zhongli, Haozhou (modern Fengyang county, Anhui). His ancestral home was Pei commandery (modern Pei county, Jiangsu). He became a Buddhist monk at an early age taking his vows at Huangjue Monastery. In 1352, he joined an insurgent force lead by Guo Zixing (1302–1355). Zhu Yuanzhang led his troops against the Yuan several times, defeating them in each and every battle. Guo Zixing promoted him and appointed him military commissioner. He also gave his adopted daughter to Zhu Yuanzhang in marriage. After Guo Zixing died of illness, all of his troops submitted to Zhu Yuanzhang. In 1368, Ming troops seized the Yuan capital Dadu, and Emperor Shun fled to the north. In the same year, Zhu Yuanzhang installed himself as emperor in Yingtian prefecture (modern Nanjing), proclaimed a new dynasty, Ming, and named his reign Hongwu. He is known as Emperor Taizu (1368–1398). He considered Yingtian the southern capital, and Kaifeng as the northern capital. In 1371, he conquered the Xi Xia (Western Xia) and consolidated his hold on Sichuan. In 1381, he entered Yunnan, and six years later, he seized the Eastern Liao. By this point, he had more or less united the entire realm. During his reign, he arrogated all political and military power to himself. He ruled his state by draconian legal measures, and severely punished corrupt court officials. However, for the sake of the livelihood of the people, he paid great attention to increasing agricultural productivity, building up the hydraulic works, and encouraging the opening of new farmland. He laid a solid foundation for the future development of the Ming dynasty.

Emperor Chengzu of Ming – Zhu Di (1360-1424)
Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, was the fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang. His princedom was located in Beiping (modern Beijing). Being brave and skillful in warfare, he distinguished himself in battle. He had coveted the throne for a long time. After Zhu Yuanzhang died, the crown prince Zhu Yunwen, known by his posthumous title Emperor Hui, succeeded to the throne. He felt that the feudatories were becoming increasingly powerful, and threatened his own imperial authority. He therefore decided to reduce their power. Zhu Di learned about his intentions, and took the opportunity to launch a “campaign to restore order.” After three years of fighting, Zhu Di seized the throne in 1403. He is known by his posthumous title Emperor Chengzu of Ming (1403–1424). After having himself installed as emperor, he went on punitive expeditions north of the Gobi Desert five times; moved the capital to Beijing; sent Zheng He (1371–1433) to the Western Seas; and reduced the power of the feudatories. In domestic affairs, he continued his policies of reclaiming wasteland, building water conservancy works. He strengthened the management of the northern region, and ordered the compilation of the Yongle da dian (a great literary compendium). Emperor Chengzu made significant contributions to the development of the Ming empire. He was one of the most powerful and influential rulers of the Ming dynasty.

Emperor Sizong of Ming – Zhu Youjian (1610-1644)
Emperor Sizong, reign title Chongzhen, was the last emperor (1627–1644) of the Ming dynasty. Ascending the throne at the age of eighteen, he tried hard to save a Ming empire that was on the verge of being overthrown. However, local government officials were too corrupt and the dynasty could not be saved. Widespread mutinies and popular revolts broke out, one after another, on an ever-increasing scale. In 1644, the rebel leader Li Zicheng (1606–1645) established his dynasty in Xi’an with the name “Da shun.” A month later, he attacked Beijing and seized the capital. With Emperor Chongzhen’s suicide, the Ming dynasty ended.

Emperor Shengzu of Qing – Xuanye, Kangxi (1654-1722)
The Kangxi emperor, personal name Xuanye, is also known as Emperor Shengzu of Qing. He succeeded to the throne when he was eight. As a teenager, in order to remove his regent, Oboi (ca. 1610–1669) from power, he plotted to have him arrested. After Kangxi took the reins of government for himself, he exterminated the Three Regional Princes, recovered Taiwan in the south, resisted the Russians in the north, and signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk, the first peace agreement between the Qing court and Russia. He also conquered the Mongols in the west. He oversaw the construction of water conservancy works, harnessed the Yellow River, encouraged the reclamation of wasteland, and reduced taxes and corvée labor. He treated his people as he would his own children.

Kangxi boldly reformed the outdated systems and policies implemented in the early Qing period. He advocated Ruism and Han culture, eased the conflict between the Manchu people and the Han people, restored the social economy, and strove for the unification and stabilization of the realm. He reigned for sixty-one years (1661–1721), during which time he laid a solid foundation for the future prosperity of the Qing. Historians often list the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors side by side and call their reigns the “Flourishing Kang-Qian era,” a golden age in Chinese history.

Emperor Shizong of Qing – Yinzhen, Yongzheng (1678-1735)
Yinzhen was the fourth son of the Kangxi emperor. In the battle for the throne, Yinzhen acceded as emperor and named his reign the Yongzheng era. He was devout Buddhist, but he was also a very calculating person, resolute and decisive. He was on the throne for thirteen years (1722–1735). During those years, he worked to make his empire strong and prosperous, strove to reform the old systems, strengthened the local administration, implemented the replacement of the head tax with a land tax, opened up wasteland, established the council of state, eliminated banner chiefs (imperial family members), pacified Qinghai, Tibet, and shored up border areas.

During his reign, the Yongzheng emperor promoted and increased productivity, made the economy more prosperous, augmented the state treasury, and stabilized the political situation. Under him, the Great Qing reached its pinnacle, the fruits of which would be enjoyed by his successor the Qianlong emperor.

Emperor Gaozong of Qing Hongli, Qianlong (1711-1799)
Hongli was the fourth son of the Yongzheng emperor. He succeeded to the throne after his father’s death. He took the reign title Qianlong, and ascended to the throne in the thirteenth year (1735) of Yongzheng’s reign to become the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty. He had the longest reign of any emperor in Chinese history (counting the three years after he passed the throne to his son) and when he abdicated, he was also the oldest. Upon his accession, the realm was already quite prosperous; he worked diligently to manage state affairs. During his reign, the Qing dynasty reached its greatest heights. His most important achievements were: administrating and managing the northwestern border regions, consolidating and developing an empire with numerous ethnic groups, and defining a solid territory for modern China. Qianlong ruled for sixty years (1735–1795). However, in his old age he became obsessed with grandeur and achievements; in his pursuit of these, he put his trust in the treacherous court official He Shen (1750–1799). Embezzlement and bribe-taking became common practices. Rampant corruption and deterioration brought the court to crisis, and marked the downhill slide of the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong era, in a way, was the turning point of the Qing empire.